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'''India''', officially the '''Republic of India''', is a country located in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by land area, the most populous nation in the world, and the largest democracy. India shares land borders with [[Pakistan]], [[China]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Myanmar]], and maritime borders with [[Sri Lanka]] and the [[Maldives]].
'''India''' officially the '''Republic of India''', is a country in South Asia. It is the '''seventh-largest country''' in the world by land area and, since 2023, the '''most populous country''', with over '''1.4 billion people'''.<ref>United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, World Population Prospects 2022</ref> Since its independence in 1947, India has been known as the world's '''largest democracy'''.<ref>Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi''. Picador India, 2007.</ref>


India is renowned for its deep cultural heritage, spiritual philosophies, and contributions to science, mathematics, arts, and literature. It is the birthplace of major world religions including [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Sikhism]].
India is surrounded by the Indian Ocean in the south, the Arabian Sea to the west, and the Bay of Bengal to the east. It shares land borders with [[Pakistan]] to the west, [[China]], [[Nepal]], and [[Bhutan]] to the north, and [[Bangladesh]] and [[Myanmar]] to the east. The island nations of [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Maldives]] lie nearby in the Indian Ocean, and India's [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] are situated close to [[Thailand]], [[Myanmar]], and [[Indonesia]].


== Etymology ==
Modern humans reached the Indian subcontinent from Africa at least 55,000 years ago.<ref>Reich, David. ''Who We Are and How We Got Here''. Oxford University Press, 2018.</ref> This long history gave rise to deep social and cultural diversity. Farming communities began around the Indus Valley more than 9,000 years ago, eventually forming the Indus Valley Civilisation—one of the world’s oldest urban cultures.<ref>Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300''. Penguin Books, 2003.</ref>
The word "India" is derived from the River Indus. In ancient times, it was referred to as 'Bharat', which remains the country’s native name.


== Historical Overview ==
Around 1200 BCE, an early form of [[Sanskrit]] entered the subcontinent through the northwest and merged with local traditions. This marked the beginning of [[Hinduism]].<ref>Witzel, Michael. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools." Harvard University, 1997.</ref> India also saw the birth of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] in the 6th century BCE, which rejected caste and stressed nonviolence and spiritual liberation.<ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica entries on Buddhism and Jainism</ref>
India’s history spans over 5,000 years — from the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] to the Vedic age, Maurya and Gupta Empires, [[Delhi Sultanate]], [[Mughals]], and finally British colonial rule. India gained independence on [[15 August 1947]] under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and several national heroes.
 
Between the 7th and 15th centuries, religions such as Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism became established along India’s western and southern coasts.<ref>The Hindu, "How religions came to India", 2020.</ref> In the north, successive [[Delhi Sultanates]] and later the [[Mughal Empire]] brought major political changes and Islamic influence in culture, art, and architecture.<ref>Richards, John F. ''The Mughal Empire''. Cambridge University Press, 1993.</ref>
 
In the south, the Vijayanagara Empire promoted a vibrant Hindu cultural revival and maritime trade with Southeast Asia.<ref>Kulke, Hermann and Rothermund, Dietmar. ''A History of India''. Routledge, 2016.</ref> Meanwhile, [[Sikhism]] emerged in the 15th century in the [[Punjab]] region, promoting equality and community service.
 
In the 17th century, the [[British East India Company]] gradually expanded its control over Indian territories. After the [[Revolt of 1857]], British Crown rule was formally established in 1858. Although India experienced some modern reforms, it remained a colony until 1947.
 
The Indian [[freedom movement]], led by leaders like [[Mahatma Gandhi]], [[Bhagat singh]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], [[Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel]]<ref>https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/top-famous-freedom-fighters-of-india-1737527201-1</ref>,  used nonviolent resistance to demand self-rule.<ref>Gandhi, M.K. ''The Story of My Experiments with Truth''.</ref> India became independent in 1947, but the country was partitioned into two nations—India and Pakistan—which led to mass migrations and violence.<ref>Khan, Yasmin. ''The Great Partition''. Yale University Press, 2007.</ref>
 
India became a sovereign democratic republic in 1950 with a parliamentary system and a federal structure. It has emerged as one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies.<ref>International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook 2024</ref> Key industries include information technology, space research, agriculture, and manufacturing. India is also a major [[nuclear power]] and a space-faring nation through [[ISRO]].<ref>ISRO Annual Report 2023–24</ref>
 
India is a pluralistic, multi-ethnic, and multilingual society, with 22 official languages and hundreds of regional languages. Its population has grown from 361 million in 1951 to over 1.4 billion in 2023.<ref>United Nations Population Division, 2022</ref>
 
Poverty has significantly declined, but economic inequality remains a major challenge. India also continues to face air pollution, gender inequality, and child malnutrition.<ref>The Lancet, "India’s Double Burden: Malnutrition and Obesity", 2022.</ref> India ranks high in military expenditure and maintains complex relations with [[China]] and Pakistan, particularly over Kashmir.<ref>Al Jazeera, "India-China Border Disputes", 2023</ref>
 
Despite challenges, India’s culture, including Bollywood, classical music, yoga, and spiritual traditions, has found influence across the globe.
 
=='''''Etymology'''''==
 
The name '''India''' comes from the Latin word ''India'', which itself came from the Greek ''Indía'' (Ἰνδία), referring to the land beyond the Indus River.<ref>Oxford English Dictionary (2009). "India". Oxford University Press.</ref> The Ancient Greeks used the word ''Indos'' (Ἰνδός) for the Indus River, and called its people ''Indoi''—"people of the Indus".<ref>Boesche, Roger. ''The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra''. Lexington Books, 2002.</ref> This name passed into Old Persian as ''Hindush'', which was the name of a province in the Achaemenid Empire. The word comes from the [[Sanskrit]] word ''Sindhu'', meaning 'river', especially referring to the Indus.<ref>Thapar, Romila. ''The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300''. Penguin Books, 2003.</ref>
 
'''Bharat''' (or ''Bhārat'') is another official name for India, mentioned in ancient Indian epics like the ''Mahabharata'' and also in the [[Constitution of India]].<ref>The Constitution of India, Article 1(1)</ref> The name is a modern version of ''Bharatavarsha'', which originally meant the northern region of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>Sharma, R.S. ''India's Ancient Past''. Oxford University Press, 2005.</ref> From the 19th century, ''Bharat'' became widely used by Indians as a national name.<ref>Keay, John. ''India: A History''. HarperCollins, 2011.</ref>
 
'''Hindustan''' is another historical name, first used in Middle Persian to refer to the land of the Indus. It became common during the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and [[Mughal Empire]], referring mainly to [[North India]], but was also used for the whole subcontinent at times.<ref>Alam, Muzaffar. ''The Languages of Political Islam: India 1200–1800''. University of Chicago Press, 2004.</ref>
 
=='''''Historical Overview'''''==
==Ancient India==
 
By about 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans (''Homo sapiens'') arrived in the Indian subcontinent from Africa<ref>Smithsonian Magazine, “Essential timeline of Homo sapiens evolution”, 2021</ref>. The oldest modern human fossils in South Asia date to around 30,000 years ago.
 
By 6500 BCE, agricultural communities appeared at Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan), showing early domestication of crops and animals, permanent houses, and grain storage<ref>Khan Academy: Neolithic Mehrgarh, 2019</ref><ref>Dyson, Tim. Migration of Homo sapiens; Archaeological Survey of India, 2025</ref>. Between 2500–1900 BCE, these societies evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, one of the world’s earliest urban cultures, with major cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan<ref>Cambridge Univ. Press: Archaeology of South Asia, 2015</ref><ref>Penn Museum on Indus maritime trade</ref>. This civilisation excelled in agriculture, crafts (such as bead making and bronze tools), standardised weights, urban drainage, and extensive trade—including with Mesopotamia via seals and beads<ref>Penn Museum: Shipping and Maritime Trade</ref><ref>Harappa.com: Trade & Technology</ref>.
 
From 2000–500 BCE, much of the subcontinent transitioned to the Iron Age. The '''Vedas''', ancient hymns linked to early [[Hinduism]], were composed in this era<ref>Witzel, Michael, Harvard University, 1997</ref>. Historians also identify several waves of Indo‑Aryan migration into the northwest<ref>Encyclopaedia Britannica: Vedic Period</ref>. It was during this time that an early ''caste system'', categorising society into hierarchical groups, took shape<ref>Thapar, Romila. '''Early India''</ref>.
 
On the Deccan Plateau, small kingdoms or chiefdoms emerged, while in South India, the appearance of megalithic monuments alongside evidence of farming and craft production indicates settled societies around 1000 BCE<ref>ASI: South India Megaliths, 2023</ref>.
 
By the 6th century BCE, larger political entities known as ''mahajanapadas'' formed in the Ganges and northwest regions<ref>Fisher, Michael H. Ancient Raj Migrations, 2010</ref>. Simultaneously, the non-Vedic religions [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] emerged, emphasising spiritual equality, renunciation, and monastic living<ref>Britannica entries on Jainism and Buddhism</ref>.
 
In the early 3rd century BCE, the Maurya Empire—originating from Magadha—unified much of northern and central India under rulers like Ashoka, who promoted Buddhist dhamma and public administration<ref>Richards, John F. The Maurya Empire, 1993</ref><ref>Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi, 2007</ref>.
 
Between 200 BCE–200 CE, the Sangam literature describes South Indian kingdoms—the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas—which traded widely with the Roman Empire and Southeast Asia<ref>Kulke & Rothermund. A History of India, 2016</ref>. In the north, patriarchal norms strengthened, reducing the social standing of women<ref>Narasimhan, 2018. Gender in Early India</ref>.
 
By the 4th–5th centuries CE, the Gupta Empire dominated the Ganges region, establishing systems of governance and taxation that influenced future states. The period is noted for the flourishing of classical Sanskrit literature, science, mathematics, medicine, art, and architecture<ref>Thapar, Romila. Early India, 2003</ref>.
 
== Medieval India==
 
The early medieval period of India, from 600 to 1200 CE, was marked by the rise of regional kingdoms and significant cultural diversity.<ref>Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Penguin, 2002.</ref>
 
'''King Harsha of Kannauj''' ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, but failed to expand his empire beyond north India. His southern campaign was stopped by the Chalukya dynasty of the Deccan, while his eastern ambitions were blocked by the Pala dynasty of Bengal.<ref>Keay, John. India: A History. HarperCollins, 2000.</ref> Likewise, when the Chalukyas tried to move further south, they were resisted by the Pallavas, who themselves faced opposition from the '''Pandyas''' and the emerging '''Chola''' dynasty.<ref>Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. A History of South India. Oxford University Press, 1955.</ref>
 
No single kingdom during this period could maintain control over lands outside their core territories.<ref>Chattopadhyaya, B.D. The Making of Early Medieval India. Oxford India Paperbacks, 1994.</ref> Pastoral communities, displaced by expanding agriculture, were absorbed into the growing caste system. New rulers, often from non-traditional backgrounds, were integrated as new castes, leading to regional variations in caste practices.<ref>Bayly, Susan. Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age. Cambridge University Press, 1999.</ref>
 
In the 6th and 7th centuries, devotional poetry known as the bhakti movement began in Tamil. These hymns, composed by saints like the Alvars and Nayanars, became popular across India, sparking a revival in [[Hinduism]] and shaping the modern Indian languages.<ref>Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</ref>
 
During this period, [[temples]] became not only religious centres but also economic and social hubs. Royal patronage led to the growth of temple towns across the subcontinent, contributing to a new wave of urbanisation.<ref>Stein, Burton. A History of India. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.</ref>
 
South Indian influence also spread outside India during the 8th and 9th centuries. Indian culture, religion, and political ideas were transmitted to [[Southeast Asia]], influencing areas in today's [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Malaysia]].<ref>Coedès, George. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. University of Hawaii Press, 1968.</ref> This was achieved through merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies, while local Southeast Asian rulers also came to India to learn and translate religious texts.<ref>Mabbett, Ian W., and David P. Chandler. The Khmers. Blackwell, 1995.</ref>
 
In the late 10th century, Central Asian Muslim clans, united by ethnicity and religion, invaded northwest India with swift horse-based armies, leading to the establishment of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in 1206 CE.<ref>Jackson, Peter. The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press, 1999.</ref> Though initially disruptive, the sultans allowed non-Muslim subjects to follow their own laws and customs.<ref>Wink, André. Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World. Brill Academic Publishers, 1991.</ref>
 
By resisting Mongol invasions in the 13th century, the Delhi Sultanate saved India from destruction experienced in West and Central Asia, encouraging the migration of scholars, soldiers, artists, and mystics to India, which contributed to a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture.<ref>Sen, Amartya. The Argumentative Indian. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005.</ref>
 
The sultanate's weakening of South Indian kingdoms made way for the Vijayanagara Empire, which embraced Shaivism and adapted military technology from the Delhi rulers. The empire controlled most of peninsular India, leaving a lasting influence on South Indian culture, religion, and architecture.<ref>Sewell, Robert. A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar. Asian Educational Services, 2000.</ref><ref>Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. History of South India, Oxford University Press.</ref>
 
== '''''Early Modern India ''''' ==
 
==16th Century==
In the early 16th century, northern India, which had been ruled by a series of [[Delhi Sultanate]] dynasties, fell to a new group of Central Asian conquerors.<ref>Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1995.</ref> These warriors, led by Babur, a descendant of both Timur and Genghis Khan, invaded India using gunpowder-based artillery and highly mobile cavalry.<ref>Thackston, Wheeler M. The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. Oxford University Press, 1996.</ref>
 
Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, marking the beginning of the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref>Chandra, Satish. Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals, Part II. Har-Anand Publications, 2007.</ref> Although Babur's rule was short, his successors — most notably Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan — consolidated and expanded the empire during the 16th century.<ref>Alam, Muzaffar, and Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. The Mughal State, 1526–1750. Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref>
 
The Mughal state was one of the most centralised and efficient administrations of its time. Under Akbar, who ruled from 1556 to 1605, the empire expanded across most of North and Central India.<ref>Habib, Irfan. The Agrarian System of Mughal India 1556–1707. Oxford University Press, 1999.</ref> He introduced revenue reforms (such as the Zabt system), supported religious tolerance, and promoted a Persianised court culture that embraced Hindus, Muslims, and other communities.<ref>Metcalf, Barbara D., and Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref>
 
The Mughal court became a major patron of arts, architecture, and literature, commissioning monuments such as Humayun's Tomb and Fatehpur Sikri during the second half of the 16th century.<ref>Asher, Catherine B. Architecture of Mughal India. Cambridge University Press, 1992.</ref> The empire’s use of a silver-based currency and regulated markets helped stimulate trade and agriculture.<ref>Raychaudhuri, Tapan, and Habib, Irfan. The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume I (c.1200–c.1750). Cambridge University Press, 1982.</ref>
 
During this century, new social and political groups like the [[Rajputs]] were incorporated into the Mughal nobility, while others such as the [[Marathas]] and [[Sikhs]] began to emerge as independent forces.<ref>Gordon, Stewart. The Marathas 1600–1818. Cambridge University Press, 1993.</ref><ref>Singh, Khushwant. A History of the Sikhs, Vol. 1. Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref>
 
While the Mughals controlled much of the subcontinent, regional kingdoms such as the Ahom kingdom in the northeast, the Vijayanagara Empire in the south, and various Deccan Sultanates remained powerful players.<ref>Stein, Burton. A History of India. Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref>
 
By the end of the 16th century, India had become one of the most prosperous and populous regions of the world, with flourishing trade networks linking it to West Asia, Europe, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.<ref>Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650. Cambridge University Press, 1990.</ref>
 
==17th Century==
During the 17th century, the [[Mughal Empire]] reached the height of its territorial and economic power. Under [[Emperor Jahangir]] (r. 1605–1627) and [[Shah Jahan]] (r. 1628–1658), the Mughal court became synonymous with opulence, architectural grandeur, and administrative sophistication.<ref>Chandra, Satish. History of Medieval India. Orient BlackSwan, 2007.</ref> The construction of the [[Taj Mahal]], one of the most iconic monuments of India, was completed in 1648 under Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal.<ref>Asher, Catherine B. Architecture of Mughal India. Cambridge University Press, 1992.</ref>
 
The empire’s economy, based on agriculture and trade, remained strong. A highly standardised system of taxation and land revenue, known as Zabt, continued to function, and large surpluses allowed the state to support vast armies and elaborate building projects.<ref>Habib, Irfan. The Agrarian System of Mughal India. Oxford University Press, 1999.</ref> Indian textiles, particularly cotton and silk, were in high demand across Europe and Southeast Asia, making India a central part of the Indian Ocean trade network.<ref>Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500–1650. Cambridge University Press, 1990.</ref>
 
European trading companies like the [[British East India Company]], '''Dutch East India Company''' (VOC), '''French East India Company''', and '''Portuguese Estado da Índia''' began to establish their presence on the Indian coasts during this period.<ref>Chaudhuri, K.N. The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company 1660–1760. Cambridge University Press, 1978.</ref> They set up factories (trading posts) in key locations such as Surat,Madras (Chennai), [[Bombay]] (Mumbai), and [[Calcutta]] (Kolkata).<ref>Marshall, P.J. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century. Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref>
 
During the reign of Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), the empire expanded to its greatest territorial extent, stretching from the Hindu Kush to the Cauvery River in the south.<ref>Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1995.</ref> However, Aurangzeb’s long campaigns in the Deccan, especially against the [[Maratha Empire]], drained the empire’s resources and led to administrative fatigue.<ref>Gordon, Stewart. The Marathas 1600–1818. Cambridge University Press, 1993.</ref> His reimposition of Islamic laws such as the Jizya tax and destruction of some Hindu temples alienated sections of the Hindu population, creating unrest in several regions.<ref>Metcalf, Barbara, and Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref>
 
At the same time, regional powers like the Sikhs in Punjab, the [[Jats]] in the north, and the [[Marathas]] in the Deccan began asserting their autonomy, laying the foundation for the fragmentation of Mughal authority in the 18th century.<ref>Singh, Khushwant. A History of the Sikhs, Volume 1. Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref><ref>Bayly, C.A. Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1988.</ref>
 
Despite these political strains, the 17th century is often considered the golden age of Mughal art, architecture, and commerce, characterised by architectural marvels, court paintings, and literary developments in Persian, Urdu, and Hindavi languages.<ref>Beach, Milo Cleveland. The New Cambridge History of India: Mughal and Rajput Painting. Cambridge University Press, 1992.</ref>
 
==18th Century==
The 18th century marked the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of regional powers across the Indian subcontinent. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the empire rapidly weakened due to administrative overreach, prolonged military campaigns, and increasing challenges from both internal rebellions and external forces.<ref>Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1995.</ref> The central authority of the emperor diminished as provincial governors (nawabs and subahdars) and military elites declared independence or ruled autonomously while still acknowledging the nominal supremacy of the Mughal court in [[Delhi]].<ref>Marshall, P.J. The Eighteenth Century in Indian History: Evolution or Revolution? Oxford University Press, 2003.</ref>
 
During this time, the Maratha Confederacy emerged as the most formidable Indian power. Under leaders like Baji Rao I and later Mahadji Shinde, the Marathas extended their influence across large parts of central, western, and northern India.<ref>Gordon, Stewart. The Marathas 1600–1818. Cambridge University Press, 1993.</ref> Their guerrilla warfare techniques, decentralised leadership, and strong cavalry enabled them to challenge Mughal dominance and rival emerging foreign powers.
 
Meanwhile, other regional powers such as the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Kingdom of Mysore, and the Sikh Confederacy in Punjab also asserted autonomy and engaged in state-building activities.<ref>Bayly, C.A. Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1988.</ref><ref>Singh, Khushwant. A History of the Sikhs, Volume 1. Oxford University Press, 2004.</ref>
 
The political instability of this era coincided with the increasing involvement of European trading companies in Indian politics. The [[British East India Company]], having gained a strong foothold in [[Bengal]] after the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757 and later the Battle of Buxar in 1764, emerged as the most powerful foreign player.<ref>Marshall, P.J. Bengal: The British Bridgehead. Cambridge University Press, 1987.</ref> These victories enabled the British to establish diwani rights (revenue collection) in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, initiating direct colonial economic control.<ref>Chaudhuri, K.N. The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company 1660–1760. Cambridge University Press, 1978.</ref>
 
While the French East India Company posed a temporary challenge through the military leadership of Joseph François Dupleix and General Lally, their defeat in the Carnatic Wars led to a decisive British supremacy among European powers in India.<ref>Markovits, Claude. A History of Modern India. Anthem Press, 2002.</ref>
 
This period also saw the rise of Indian thinkers and reformers influenced by both traditional learning and the early engagement with European ideas. The weakening of centralised control and shifting political power laid the groundwork for cultural exchange, social reforms, and the beginning of the modern colonial state that would emerge more clearly in the 19th century.<ref>Metcalf, Barbara D., and Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref>
 
==19th Century==
 
During the 19th century, India witnessed the transformation from commercial colonisation under the [[British East India Company]] to direct British Crown rule, and the beginning of modern Indian nationalism. After the ''Anglo-Mysore Wars'' and ''Anglo-Maratha Wars'', the British had effectively subdued most Indian princely states by the early 1800s.<ref>Marshall, P.J. The British in Asia: Trade to Dominion, 1700–1765. Cambridge University Press, 2005.</ref>
 
The turning point came in 1857, with the outbreak of the [[ Revolt of 1857]], also referred to as the First War of Independence by Indian nationalists.<ref>Sarkar, Sumit. Modern India 1885–1947. Macmillan, 1983.</ref> Triggered by discontent among Indian soldiers (sepoys) over cultural insensitivity and growing resentment against British policies, the rebellion spread across '''northern''' and '''central India''', involving both Hindu and Muslim leaders, as well as civilians.<ref>Metcalf, Barbara D., and Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref> Although the revolt was eventually suppressed, it had far-reaching consequences. In 1858, the British Crown assumed direct control over India, formally ending Company rule and inaugurating the period of the '''British Raj'''.<ref>Heath, Ian. The Indian Mutiny: 1857–1858. Osprey Publishing, 2005.</ref>
 
Under the British Raj, India was reorganised into provinces administered by British officials and princely states ruled by Indian kings under British suzerainty. The British introduced railways, telegraphs, modern education, and Western legal systems, which were intended to integrate India into the global capitalist economy while also extending colonial control.<ref>Bayly, C.A. Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1988.</ref> [[Calcutta]], [[Bombay]], and [[Madras]] emerged as major urban centres. English education fostered a new class of Indian intellectuals, including '''Raja Ram Mohan Roy''', '''Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar''', and later ''Swami Vivekananda'', who advocated for social reform, women’s rights, and religious revivalism.<ref>Kejariwal, O.P. The Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Discovery of India's Past, 1784–1838. Oxford University Press, 1988.</ref>
 
Socially, this era was marked by reform movements such as the '''Brahmo Samaj''', '''Arya Samaj''', and efforts to abolish practices like ''sati'', child marriage, and promote widow remarriage.<ref>Sen, Amartya. The Argumentative Indian. Penguin Books, 2005.</ref> Legislation like the '''Widow Remarriage Act of 1856''' and '''Age of Consent Act of 1891''' reflected British involvement in Indian social practices, sometimes welcomed by reformers but also leading to nationalist resistance.
 
Economically, India was turned into a supplier of raw materials and a consumer of British manufactured goods, which caused deindustrialisation of native textile industries, heavy land taxation, and increased rural poverty.<ref>Roy, Tirthankar. The Economic History of India 1857–1947. Oxford University Press, 2006.</ref> Famines, such as the ''Great Famine of 1876–1878'', were exacerbated by British policy prioritising exports over local needs.<ref>Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World. Verso, 2001.</ref>
 
By the late 19th century, Indian political consciousness was rising. The founding of the [[Indian National Congress]] in 1885 provided a national platform for expressing grievances against British rule.<ref>Brown, Judith M. Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy. Oxford University Press, 1994.</ref> Early leaders such as '''Dadabhai Naoroji''', '''Gopal Krishna Gokhale''', and '''Surendranath Banerjee''' focused on petitions, legislative reforms, and increased Indian representation in administration.
 
== 20th Century India ==
 
The 20th century was a turning point in Indian history, as the freedom movement transformed from moderate constitutional demands to a mass-based '''''struggle for independence'''''. The early phase of the century was dominated by the moderate nationalists, who sought reforms and Indian representation in governance. However, after the ''Partition of Bengal (1905)'' by the British, a wave of '''Swadeshi movement|Swadeshi''' and boycott protests emerged, promoting Indian-made goods and rejecting British products.<ref>Metcalf, Barbara D. & Metcalf, Thomas R. A Concise History of Modern India. Cambridge University Press, 2006.</ref>
 
During World War I, over a million Indian soldiers served overseas under the British Army, hoping for political concessions in return. But the '''Rowlatt Act (1919)''', which allowed detention without trial, and the ''Jallianwala Bagh massacre'' shocked the nation, turning public opinion sharply against British rule.<ref>Gandhi, Rajmohan. Gandhi: The Man, His People, and the Empire. University of California Press, 2006.</ref> It was during this time that [[Mahatma Gandhi]] emerged as a mass leader, advocating ''Satyagraha'' (non-violent resistance) and leading nationwide movements like the ''Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)'', ''Salt March (1930)'', and ''Quit India Movement (1942)''.<ref>Brown, Judith M. Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope. Yale University Press, 1989.</ref>
 
Political parties like the [[Indian National Congress]] and ''All India Muslim League'' became more prominent. While Congress pushed for a united India, the Muslim League under ''Muhammad Ali Jinnah'' began advocating for a separate Muslim state, which eventually led to the demand for [[Pakistan]].<ref>Jalal, Ayesha. The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League, and the Demand for Pakistan. Cambridge University Press, 1994.</ref>
 
Britain’s exhaustion after [[World War II]], growing international pressure, and mass civil disobedience led to the eventual withdrawal of the British. On 15 August 1947, '''India gained independence''', but it came with the [[Partition of India]], resulting in the creation of the separate nation of Pakistan. The partition caused widespread violence, the largest mass migration in history, and communal riots between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs, leading to the deaths of hundreds of thousands.<ref>Khuswant Singh. Train to Pakistan. Grove Press, 1956.</ref><ref>Butalia, Urvashi. The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India. Penguin Books India, 1998.</ref>
 
The independence era also marked the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in 1948, by a Hindu extremist, an event that deeply shook the nation.<ref>Lal, Vinay. The Gandhi Murder Trial. University of California, Los Angeles, 2000.</ref>
 
== Post-Independence India (1947–present) ==
 
India became an independent nation on 15 August 1947. The first [[Prime Minister of India]], [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], took leadership with a vision of a secular, democratic, and socialist country. On 26 January 1950, India adopted its [[Constitution of India]] and officially became a [[Republic of India]], with [[Dr. B. R. Ambedkar]] as the principal architect of the Constitution.<ref>Granville Austin. The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation. Oxford University Press, 1966.</ref>
 
The early years focused on nation-building, with large investments in infrastructure, education, and public sector enterprises. The government promoted a mixed economy model, combining private enterprise with government control over key industries. Nehru also started the Non-Aligned Movement, keeping India independent of Cold War alliances.<ref>Brecher, Michael. Nehru: A Political Biography. Oxford University Press, 1959.</ref>
 
'''India faced major challenges after independence:'''
 
The [[Partition of India]] led to communal violence and the displacement of over 14 million people.<ref>Butalia, Urvashi. The Other Side of Silence. Penguin, 1998.</ref>
 
India integrated over 500 princely states, including controversial cases like ''Hyderabad State'' and ''Jammu and Kashmir'', the latter of which became a long-standing issue between India and Pakistan.<ref>Menon, V.P. The Story of the Integration of the Indian States. Orient Longman, 1956.</ref>
 
India fought several wars:
 
•'''Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948''' over Kashmir
 
•'''Sino-Indian War of 1962''' with China
 
•'''Indo-Pakistani War of 1965'''
 
•''Bangladesh Liberation War'' in 1971, where India helped in the creation of Bangladesh<ref>Raghavan, Srinath. 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh. Harvard University Press, 2013.</ref>
 
•In 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test in Pokhran, Rajasthan, making it a nuclear power.<ref>Kapur, S. Paul. India’s Nuclear Policy. Stanford University Press, 2008.</ref>
 
•In the 1970s and 1980s, India went through political instability. The [[Emergency (India)|Emergency of 1975–77]], declared by then Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]], suspended civil liberties and censored the press.<ref>Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi. Picador, 2007.</ref> The 1984 assassination of Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards led to anti-Sikh riots and a major communal crisis.<ref>Brass, Paul R. The Politics of India Since Independence. Cambridge University Press, 1994.</ref>
 
The 1991 economic crisis forced India to adopt liberalisation, ending the Licence Raj and opening up to global markets under Prime Minister ''P. V. Narasimha Rao'' and Finance Minister ''Manmohan Singh''.<ref>Ahluwalia, Montek S. "Economic Reforms in India Since 1991." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 2002.</ref>
 
== 21st Century India ==
 
India entered the 21st century as a rapidly growing ''emerging economy'', marked by progress in information technology, space exploration, and renewable energy. It became one of the world’s fastest-growing economies.<ref>World Bank. India Overview. 2022.</ref> India also launched missions like '''Chandrayaan''' and '''Mangalyaan''' to explore the Moon and Mars.<ref>ISRO. Mission Summaries. 2023.</ref>
 
India continues to face internal challenges such as poverty, corruption, pollution, and religious tensions, but it has also seen major reforms in digital governance, infrastructure, and social welfare schemes.
 
India is now the world's most populous country (as of 2023), a nuclear power, a key player in global diplomacy, and an important member of groups like ''G20'', ''BRICS'', and ''Quad''.<ref>United Nations Population Division. World Population Prospects. 2023.</ref><ref>G20 India. G20 Presidency 2023 Official Website. 2023.</ref>
 
=='''''Geography'''''==
[[India]] accounts for the bulk of the ''Indian subcontinent'', lying atop the ''Indian Plate'', a part of the ''Indo-Australian Plate''.<ref name="plate1">Sclater, J.G. et al., "Plate tectonics and the evolution of the Indian subcontinent", Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1981.</ref> India's defining geological processes began approximately 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, originally part of the southern supercontinent ''Gondwana'', began a northeastward drift due to ''seafloor spreading'' in the south-west, and later, the south and southeast.<ref name="plate1" /> Concurrently, the vast Tethyan oceanic crust to its northeast started subducting under the ''Eurasian Plate''. These tectonic forces, driven by convection currents in the Earth's mantle, eventually created the [[Indian Ocean]], thrust the Indian landmass under Eurasia, and gave rise to the [[Himalayas]].<ref name="plate2">Valdiya, K.S. (2001). "Geology of the Indian Subcontinent", Universities Press.</ref> South of the Himalayas, tectonic movement led to the formation of the crescent-shaped ''Indo-Gangetic Plain'', formed by sedimentation from Himalayan rivers.<ref name="plain1">Oldham, R.D. (1893). "Geology of India", Geological Survey of India.</ref> The Indian Plate emerges visibly in the ancient ''Aravalli Range'', extending southwest from the [[Delhi]] Ridge. To the west of the Aravallis lies the ''Thar Desert'', whose eastern expansion is checked by these hills.
 
The stable and oldest part of the Indian Plate remains as Peninsular India, which includes the Deccan Plateau. This region extends northwards to the Satpura Range and the Vindhya Range, which run roughly east–west from the Arabian Sea in Gujarat to the ''Chota Nagpur Plateau'' in Jharkhand.<ref name="peninsula1">Radhakrishna, B.P., "Geological evolution of peninsular India", Journal of the Geological Society of India, 1993.</ref> The plateau, bordered by the ''Western Ghats'' and ''Eastern Ghats'', contains some of the country's oldest rock formations, dating back more than one billion years.<ref name="deccan1">Crawford, M.L., "Precambrian Geology of India", Cambridge University Press, 1998.</ref> India lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere, between 6°44′ and 35°30′ N latitude and 68°7′ and 97°25′ E longitude.
 
India's total ''coastline'' measures approximately 7,516 km, although a 2024 survey using high-resolution satellite imagery by the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) recalculated the dynamic mainland and island perimeter to be over 11,000 km, factoring in tidal variations and sandbar shifts.<ref name="coast2024">INCOIS Report, "Updated Indian Coastline Mapping with Satellite Data", Ministry of Earth Sciences, 2024.</ref> This includes 5,423 km along Peninsular India and 2,094 km surrounding the ''Andaman and Nicobar Islands'' and ''Lakshadweep. According to hydrographic charts, the mainland coast comprises 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky shores, and 46% mudflats or marshes.<ref name="coastOld">Indian Navy Hydrographic Department, "Coastal Morphology Atlas", 2019.</ref> Prominent rivers with Himalayan origins include the Ganges and the ''Brahmaputra'', both draining into the ''Bay of Bengal''. Tributaries like the ''Yamuna'' and ''Kosi''—the latter prone to flooding due to its low gradient—support dense agriculture.<ref name="rivers1">Central Water Commission, "Major River Basins of India", 2023.</ref> Peninsular rivers like the ''Godavari'', ''Krishna'', ''Mahanadi'', and ''Kaveri'' also flow into the Bay of Bengal, while the ''Narmada'' and ''Tapti'' drain into the Arabian Sea.<ref name="rivers2">Ministry of Jal Shakti, India, "River Atlas", 2023.</ref> The coastline features the ''Rann of Kutch'' in the west and the ''Sundarbans'' delta in the east, the latter shared with ''Bangladesh''.
 
India's climate is profoundly influenced by the ''Himalayas'' and the ''Thar Desert'', which help trigger the ''Southwest monsoon'' between June and October, delivering over 70% of annual rainfall.<ref name="imdp1">India Meteorological Department (IMD), "Climate of India Annual Report", 2024.</ref> The Himalayas block frigid katabatic winds from Central Asia, maintaining warmer winters across the subcontinent.<ref name="climateHimalaya">IMD Climatology Division, 2023.</ref> India features four major climate zones: ''Tropical wet'', ''Tropical dry'', ''Subtropical humid'', and ''Montane''. Since 1901, the average temperature has risen by 0.7 °C, with heatwaves becoming longer and more intense. In May 2025, India recorded widespread pre-monsoon heat with temperatures crossing 44°C in central and northern regions, while states like ''Kerala'' and ''Arunachal Pradesh'' faced unexpected heat surges.<ref name="climate2025a">Times of India, "Extreme Weather in India Linked to Climate Change", June 2025.</ref> ''Climate change in India'' has accelerated the retreat of Himalayan glaciers such as the ''Gangotri Glacier'' and ''Drang-Drung Glacier'', impacting river flows, agriculture, and downstream hydroelectric systems.<ref name="glacier2025">IIT Roorkee Study, "Glacial Retreat in Ladakh", April 2025.</ref> The melting threatens seasonal water availability for millions in the Indo-Gangetic basin.
 
Moreover, India is facing increased ''droughts'', ''floods'', ''cyclones'', and ''vector-borne diseases'' due to climate variability. Cities like '''Chennai''' are projected to see a twofold increase in annual heatwave days by 2030.<ref name="urbanheat">The Hindu, "Heatwave Trends in Indian Cities", June 2025.</ref> Rising sea levels threaten low-lying regions such as the '''Sundarbans''', '''Ghoramara Island''', and coastal megacities, with over 35% of the population residing within 100 km of the coast.<ref name="searise1">UNEP Report, "South Asia Coastal Risk Map", 2024.</ref> In response, India has expanded its ''National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)'' and launched the Bharat Forecasting System in 2025 to improve extreme weather prediction, while also undertaking new adaptation initiatives like the '''MISHTI''' mangrove restoration project.<ref name="policy2025">Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), "India's Climate Adaptation Strategy 2025", June 2025.</ref>


== Government and Politics ==
== Government and Politics ==
India is a '''federal parliamentary republic''', governed by the [[Constitution of India]]. The President is the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister leads the government. The Parliament consists of the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of the People) and [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States).
India is a '''federal parliamentary republic''', governed by the [[Constitution of India]]. The President is the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister leads the government. The Parliament consists of the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of the People) and [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States).


== Geography ==
India’s geography includes the Himalayas in the north, the Indo-Gangetic plains, the [[Thar Desert]] in the west, the tropical coastline in the south, and dense forests in the northeast. The country has a wide variety of ecosystems and biodiversity.


== Economy ==
== Economy ==

Revision as of 09:27, 23 July 2025

India
Republic of India
Flag Horizontal tricolour of deep saffron, white, and green with a blue Ashoka Chakra at the center
Motto "Satyameva Jayate" (Truth Alone Triumphs)
Anthem Jana Gana Mana
Official Languages Hindi, English
Capital New Delhi
Largest city Mumbai
Government Type Federal parliamentary constitutional republic
President Droupadi Murmu
Prime Minister Narendra Modi
Legislature Parliament of India
Area 3,287,263 km²
Population 1,428,627,663 (2023)
GDP (Nominal) $3.7 trillion (2023)
Currency Indian Rupee (₹)
Time zone IST (UTC+05:30)
Drives on left
Calling code +91
Internet TLD .in


India officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country in the world by land area and, since 2023, the most populous country, with over 1.4 billion people.[1] Since its independence in 1947, India has been known as the world's largest democracy.[2]

India is surrounded by the Indian Ocean in the south, the Arabian Sea to the west, and the Bay of Bengal to the east. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. The island nations of Sri Lanka and Maldives lie nearby in the Indian Ocean, and India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands are situated close to Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia.

Modern humans reached the Indian subcontinent from Africa at least 55,000 years ago.[3] This long history gave rise to deep social and cultural diversity. Farming communities began around the Indus Valley more than 9,000 years ago, eventually forming the Indus Valley Civilisation—one of the world’s oldest urban cultures.[4]

Around 1200 BCE, an early form of Sanskrit entered the subcontinent through the northwest and merged with local traditions. This marked the beginning of Hinduism.[5] India also saw the birth of Buddhism and Jainism in the 6th century BCE, which rejected caste and stressed nonviolence and spiritual liberation.[6]

Between the 7th and 15th centuries, religions such as Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism became established along India’s western and southern coasts.[7] In the north, successive Delhi Sultanates and later the Mughal Empire brought major political changes and Islamic influence in culture, art, and architecture.[8]

In the south, the Vijayanagara Empire promoted a vibrant Hindu cultural revival and maritime trade with Southeast Asia.[9] Meanwhile, Sikhism emerged in the 15th century in the Punjab region, promoting equality and community service.

In the 17th century, the British East India Company gradually expanded its control over Indian territories. After the Revolt of 1857, British Crown rule was formally established in 1858. Although India experienced some modern reforms, it remained a colony until 1947.

The Indian freedom movement, led by leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Bhagat singh, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel[10], used nonviolent resistance to demand self-rule.[11] India became independent in 1947, but the country was partitioned into two nations—India and Pakistan—which led to mass migrations and violence.[12]

India became a sovereign democratic republic in 1950 with a parliamentary system and a federal structure. It has emerged as one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies.[13] Key industries include information technology, space research, agriculture, and manufacturing. India is also a major nuclear power and a space-faring nation through ISRO.[14]

India is a pluralistic, multi-ethnic, and multilingual society, with 22 official languages and hundreds of regional languages. Its population has grown from 361 million in 1951 to over 1.4 billion in 2023.[15]

Poverty has significantly declined, but economic inequality remains a major challenge. India also continues to face air pollution, gender inequality, and child malnutrition.[16] India ranks high in military expenditure and maintains complex relations with China and Pakistan, particularly over Kashmir.[17]

Despite challenges, India’s culture, including Bollywood, classical music, yoga, and spiritual traditions, has found influence across the globe.

Etymology

The name India comes from the Latin word India, which itself came from the Greek Indía (Ἰνδία), referring to the land beyond the Indus River.[18] The Ancient Greeks used the word Indos (Ἰνδός) for the Indus River, and called its people Indoi—"people of the Indus".[19] This name passed into Old Persian as Hindush, which was the name of a province in the Achaemenid Empire. The word comes from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, meaning 'river', especially referring to the Indus.[20]

Bharat (or Bhārat) is another official name for India, mentioned in ancient Indian epics like the Mahabharata and also in the Constitution of India.[21] The name is a modern version of Bharatavarsha, which originally meant the northern region of the Indian subcontinent.[22] From the 19th century, Bharat became widely used by Indians as a national name.[23]

Hindustan is another historical name, first used in Middle Persian to refer to the land of the Indus. It became common during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, referring mainly to North India, but was also used for the whole subcontinent at times.[24]

Historical Overview

Ancient India

By about 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans (Homo sapiens) arrived in the Indian subcontinent from Africa[25]. The oldest modern human fossils in South Asia date to around 30,000 years ago.

By 6500 BCE, agricultural communities appeared at Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan), showing early domestication of crops and animals, permanent houses, and grain storage[26][27]. Between 2500–1900 BCE, these societies evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, one of the world’s earliest urban cultures, with major cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan[28][29]. This civilisation excelled in agriculture, crafts (such as bead making and bronze tools), standardised weights, urban drainage, and extensive trade—including with Mesopotamia via seals and beads[30][31].

From 2000–500 BCE, much of the subcontinent transitioned to the Iron Age. The Vedas, ancient hymns linked to early Hinduism, were composed in this era[32]. Historians also identify several waves of Indo‑Aryan migration into the northwest[33]. It was during this time that an early caste system, categorising society into hierarchical groups, took shape[34].

On the Deccan Plateau, small kingdoms or chiefdoms emerged, while in South India, the appearance of megalithic monuments alongside evidence of farming and craft production indicates settled societies around 1000 BCE[35].

By the 6th century BCE, larger political entities known as mahajanapadas formed in the Ganges and northwest regions[36]. Simultaneously, the non-Vedic religions Jainism and Buddhism emerged, emphasising spiritual equality, renunciation, and monastic living[37].

In the early 3rd century BCE, the Maurya Empire—originating from Magadha—unified much of northern and central India under rulers like Ashoka, who promoted Buddhist dhamma and public administration[38][39].

Between 200 BCE–200 CE, the Sangam literature describes South Indian kingdoms—the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas—which traded widely with the Roman Empire and Southeast Asia[40]. In the north, patriarchal norms strengthened, reducing the social standing of women[41].

By the 4th–5th centuries CE, the Gupta Empire dominated the Ganges region, establishing systems of governance and taxation that influenced future states. The period is noted for the flourishing of classical Sanskrit literature, science, mathematics, medicine, art, and architecture[42].

Medieval India

The early medieval period of India, from 600 to 1200 CE, was marked by the rise of regional kingdoms and significant cultural diversity.[43]

King Harsha of Kannauj ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, but failed to expand his empire beyond north India. His southern campaign was stopped by the Chalukya dynasty of the Deccan, while his eastern ambitions were blocked by the Pala dynasty of Bengal.[44] Likewise, when the Chalukyas tried to move further south, they were resisted by the Pallavas, who themselves faced opposition from the Pandyas and the emerging Chola dynasty.[45]

No single kingdom during this period could maintain control over lands outside their core territories.[46] Pastoral communities, displaced by expanding agriculture, were absorbed into the growing caste system. New rulers, often from non-traditional backgrounds, were integrated as new castes, leading to regional variations in caste practices.[47]

In the 6th and 7th centuries, devotional poetry known as the bhakti movement began in Tamil. These hymns, composed by saints like the Alvars and Nayanars, became popular across India, sparking a revival in Hinduism and shaping the modern Indian languages.[48]

During this period, temples became not only religious centres but also economic and social hubs. Royal patronage led to the growth of temple towns across the subcontinent, contributing to a new wave of urbanisation.[49]

South Indian influence also spread outside India during the 8th and 9th centuries. Indian culture, religion, and political ideas were transmitted to Southeast Asia, influencing areas in today's Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Malaysia.[50] This was achieved through merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies, while local Southeast Asian rulers also came to India to learn and translate religious texts.[51]

In the late 10th century, Central Asian Muslim clans, united by ethnicity and religion, invaded northwest India with swift horse-based armies, leading to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE.[52] Though initially disruptive, the sultans allowed non-Muslim subjects to follow their own laws and customs.[53]

By resisting Mongol invasions in the 13th century, the Delhi Sultanate saved India from destruction experienced in West and Central Asia, encouraging the migration of scholars, soldiers, artists, and mystics to India, which contributed to a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture.[54]

The sultanate's weakening of South Indian kingdoms made way for the Vijayanagara Empire, which embraced Shaivism and adapted military technology from the Delhi rulers. The empire controlled most of peninsular India, leaving a lasting influence on South Indian culture, religion, and architecture.[55][56]

Early Modern India

16th Century

In the early 16th century, northern India, which had been ruled by a series of Delhi Sultanate dynasties, fell to a new group of Central Asian conquerors.[57] These warriors, led by Babur, a descendant of both Timur and Genghis Khan, invaded India using gunpowder-based artillery and highly mobile cavalry.[58]

Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, marking the beginning of the Mughal Empire.[59] Although Babur's rule was short, his successors — most notably Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan — consolidated and expanded the empire during the 16th century.[60]

The Mughal state was one of the most centralised and efficient administrations of its time. Under Akbar, who ruled from 1556 to 1605, the empire expanded across most of North and Central India.[61] He introduced revenue reforms (such as the Zabt system), supported religious tolerance, and promoted a Persianised court culture that embraced Hindus, Muslims, and other communities.[62]

The Mughal court became a major patron of arts, architecture, and literature, commissioning monuments such as Humayun's Tomb and Fatehpur Sikri during the second half of the 16th century.[63] The empire’s use of a silver-based currency and regulated markets helped stimulate trade and agriculture.[64]

During this century, new social and political groups like the Rajputs were incorporated into the Mughal nobility, while others such as the Marathas and Sikhs began to emerge as independent forces.[65][66]

While the Mughals controlled much of the subcontinent, regional kingdoms such as the Ahom kingdom in the northeast, the Vijayanagara Empire in the south, and various Deccan Sultanates remained powerful players.[67]

By the end of the 16th century, India had become one of the most prosperous and populous regions of the world, with flourishing trade networks linking it to West Asia, Europe, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.[68]

17th Century

During the 17th century, the Mughal Empire reached the height of its territorial and economic power. Under Emperor Jahangir (r. 1605–1627) and Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658), the Mughal court became synonymous with opulence, architectural grandeur, and administrative sophistication.[69] The construction of the Taj Mahal, one of the most iconic monuments of India, was completed in 1648 under Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal.[70]

The empire’s economy, based on agriculture and trade, remained strong. A highly standardised system of taxation and land revenue, known as Zabt, continued to function, and large surpluses allowed the state to support vast armies and elaborate building projects.[71] Indian textiles, particularly cotton and silk, were in high demand across Europe and Southeast Asia, making India a central part of the Indian Ocean trade network.[72]

European trading companies like the British East India Company, Dutch East India Company (VOC), French East India Company, and Portuguese Estado da Índia began to establish their presence on the Indian coasts during this period.[73] They set up factories (trading posts) in key locations such as Surat,Madras (Chennai), Bombay (Mumbai), and Calcutta (Kolkata).[74]

During the reign of Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), the empire expanded to its greatest territorial extent, stretching from the Hindu Kush to the Cauvery River in the south.[75] However, Aurangzeb’s long campaigns in the Deccan, especially against the Maratha Empire, drained the empire’s resources and led to administrative fatigue.[76] His reimposition of Islamic laws such as the Jizya tax and destruction of some Hindu temples alienated sections of the Hindu population, creating unrest in several regions.[77]

At the same time, regional powers like the Sikhs in Punjab, the Jats in the north, and the Marathas in the Deccan began asserting their autonomy, laying the foundation for the fragmentation of Mughal authority in the 18th century.[78][79]

Despite these political strains, the 17th century is often considered the golden age of Mughal art, architecture, and commerce, characterised by architectural marvels, court paintings, and literary developments in Persian, Urdu, and Hindavi languages.[80]

18th Century

The 18th century marked the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of regional powers across the Indian subcontinent. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the empire rapidly weakened due to administrative overreach, prolonged military campaigns, and increasing challenges from both internal rebellions and external forces.[81] The central authority of the emperor diminished as provincial governors (nawabs and subahdars) and military elites declared independence or ruled autonomously while still acknowledging the nominal supremacy of the Mughal court in Delhi.[82]

During this time, the Maratha Confederacy emerged as the most formidable Indian power. Under leaders like Baji Rao I and later Mahadji Shinde, the Marathas extended their influence across large parts of central, western, and northern India.[83] Their guerrilla warfare techniques, decentralised leadership, and strong cavalry enabled them to challenge Mughal dominance and rival emerging foreign powers.

Meanwhile, other regional powers such as the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Kingdom of Mysore, and the Sikh Confederacy in Punjab also asserted autonomy and engaged in state-building activities.[84][85]

The political instability of this era coincided with the increasing involvement of European trading companies in Indian politics. The British East India Company, having gained a strong foothold in Bengal after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and later the Battle of Buxar in 1764, emerged as the most powerful foreign player.[86] These victories enabled the British to establish diwani rights (revenue collection) in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, initiating direct colonial economic control.[87]

While the French East India Company posed a temporary challenge through the military leadership of Joseph François Dupleix and General Lally, their defeat in the Carnatic Wars led to a decisive British supremacy among European powers in India.[88]

This period also saw the rise of Indian thinkers and reformers influenced by both traditional learning and the early engagement with European ideas. The weakening of centralised control and shifting political power laid the groundwork for cultural exchange, social reforms, and the beginning of the modern colonial state that would emerge more clearly in the 19th century.[89]

19th Century

During the 19th century, India witnessed the transformation from commercial colonisation under the British East India Company to direct British Crown rule, and the beginning of modern Indian nationalism. After the Anglo-Mysore Wars and Anglo-Maratha Wars, the British had effectively subdued most Indian princely states by the early 1800s.[90]

The turning point came in 1857, with the outbreak of the Revolt of 1857, also referred to as the First War of Independence by Indian nationalists.[91] Triggered by discontent among Indian soldiers (sepoys) over cultural insensitivity and growing resentment against British policies, the rebellion spread across northern and central India, involving both Hindu and Muslim leaders, as well as civilians.[92] Although the revolt was eventually suppressed, it had far-reaching consequences. In 1858, the British Crown assumed direct control over India, formally ending Company rule and inaugurating the period of the British Raj.[93]

Under the British Raj, India was reorganised into provinces administered by British officials and princely states ruled by Indian kings under British suzerainty. The British introduced railways, telegraphs, modern education, and Western legal systems, which were intended to integrate India into the global capitalist economy while also extending colonial control.[94] Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras emerged as major urban centres. English education fostered a new class of Indian intellectuals, including Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and later Swami Vivekananda, who advocated for social reform, women’s rights, and religious revivalism.[95]

Socially, this era was marked by reform movements such as the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and efforts to abolish practices like sati, child marriage, and promote widow remarriage.[96] Legislation like the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 and Age of Consent Act of 1891 reflected British involvement in Indian social practices, sometimes welcomed by reformers but also leading to nationalist resistance.

Economically, India was turned into a supplier of raw materials and a consumer of British manufactured goods, which caused deindustrialisation of native textile industries, heavy land taxation, and increased rural poverty.[97] Famines, such as the Great Famine of 1876–1878, were exacerbated by British policy prioritising exports over local needs.[98]

By the late 19th century, Indian political consciousness was rising. The founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885 provided a national platform for expressing grievances against British rule.[99] Early leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Surendranath Banerjee focused on petitions, legislative reforms, and increased Indian representation in administration.

20th Century India

The 20th century was a turning point in Indian history, as the freedom movement transformed from moderate constitutional demands to a mass-based struggle for independence. The early phase of the century was dominated by the moderate nationalists, who sought reforms and Indian representation in governance. However, after the Partition of Bengal (1905) by the British, a wave of Swadeshi movement|Swadeshi and boycott protests emerged, promoting Indian-made goods and rejecting British products.[100]

During World War I, over a million Indian soldiers served overseas under the British Army, hoping for political concessions in return. But the Rowlatt Act (1919), which allowed detention without trial, and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre shocked the nation, turning public opinion sharply against British rule.[101] It was during this time that Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a mass leader, advocating Satyagraha (non-violent resistance) and leading nationwide movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920), Salt March (1930), and Quit India Movement (1942).[102]

Political parties like the Indian National Congress and All India Muslim League became more prominent. While Congress pushed for a united India, the Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah began advocating for a separate Muslim state, which eventually led to the demand for Pakistan.[103]

Britain’s exhaustion after World War II, growing international pressure, and mass civil disobedience led to the eventual withdrawal of the British. On 15 August 1947, India gained independence, but it came with the Partition of India, resulting in the creation of the separate nation of Pakistan. The partition caused widespread violence, the largest mass migration in history, and communal riots between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs, leading to the deaths of hundreds of thousands.[104][105]

The independence era also marked the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in 1948, by a Hindu extremist, an event that deeply shook the nation.[106]

Post-Independence India (1947–present)

India became an independent nation on 15 August 1947. The first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, took leadership with a vision of a secular, democratic, and socialist country. On 26 January 1950, India adopted its Constitution of India and officially became a Republic of India, with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar as the principal architect of the Constitution.[107]

The early years focused on nation-building, with large investments in infrastructure, education, and public sector enterprises. The government promoted a mixed economy model, combining private enterprise with government control over key industries. Nehru also started the Non-Aligned Movement, keeping India independent of Cold War alliances.[108]

India faced major challenges after independence:

The Partition of India led to communal violence and the displacement of over 14 million people.[109]

India integrated over 500 princely states, including controversial cases like Hyderabad State and Jammu and Kashmir, the latter of which became a long-standing issue between India and Pakistan.[110]

India fought several wars:

•Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 over Kashmir

•Sino-Indian War of 1962 with China

•Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

•Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, where India helped in the creation of Bangladesh[111]

•In 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test in Pokhran, Rajasthan, making it a nuclear power.[112]

•In the 1970s and 1980s, India went through political instability. The Emergency of 1975–77, declared by then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, suspended civil liberties and censored the press.[113] The 1984 assassination of Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards led to anti-Sikh riots and a major communal crisis.[114]

The 1991 economic crisis forced India to adopt liberalisation, ending the Licence Raj and opening up to global markets under Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Manmohan Singh.[115]

21st Century India

India entered the 21st century as a rapidly growing emerging economy, marked by progress in information technology, space exploration, and renewable energy. It became one of the world’s fastest-growing economies.[116] India also launched missions like Chandrayaan and Mangalyaan to explore the Moon and Mars.[117]

India continues to face internal challenges such as poverty, corruption, pollution, and religious tensions, but it has also seen major reforms in digital governance, infrastructure, and social welfare schemes.

India is now the world's most populous country (as of 2023), a nuclear power, a key player in global diplomacy, and an important member of groups like G20, BRICS, and Quad.[118][119]

Geography

India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the Indian Plate, a part of the Indo-Australian Plate.[120] India's defining geological processes began approximately 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, originally part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastward drift due to seafloor spreading in the south-west, and later, the south and southeast.[120] Concurrently, the vast Tethyan oceanic crust to its northeast started subducting under the Eurasian Plate. These tectonic forces, driven by convection currents in the Earth's mantle, eventually created the Indian Ocean, thrust the Indian landmass under Eurasia, and gave rise to the Himalayas.[121] South of the Himalayas, tectonic movement led to the formation of the crescent-shaped Indo-Gangetic Plain, formed by sedimentation from Himalayan rivers.[122] The Indian Plate emerges visibly in the ancient Aravalli Range, extending southwest from the Delhi Ridge. To the west of the Aravallis lies the Thar Desert, whose eastern expansion is checked by these hills.

The stable and oldest part of the Indian Plate remains as Peninsular India, which includes the Deccan Plateau. This region extends northwards to the Satpura Range and the Vindhya Range, which run roughly east–west from the Arabian Sea in Gujarat to the Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand.[123] The plateau, bordered by the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats, contains some of the country's oldest rock formations, dating back more than one billion years.[124] India lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere, between 6°44′ and 35°30′ N latitude and 68°7′ and 97°25′ E longitude.

India's total coastline measures approximately 7,516 km, although a 2024 survey using high-resolution satellite imagery by the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) recalculated the dynamic mainland and island perimeter to be over 11,000 km, factoring in tidal variations and sandbar shifts.[125] This includes 5,423 km along Peninsular India and 2,094 km surrounding the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep. According to hydrographic charts, the mainland coast comprises 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky shores, and 46% mudflats or marshes.[126] Prominent rivers with Himalayan origins include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both draining into the Bay of Bengal. Tributaries like the Yamuna and Kosi—the latter prone to flooding due to its low gradient—support dense agriculture.[127] Peninsular rivers like the Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, and Kaveri also flow into the Bay of Bengal, while the Narmada and Tapti drain into the Arabian Sea.[128] The coastline features the Rann of Kutch in the west and the Sundarbans delta in the east, the latter shared with Bangladesh.

India's climate is profoundly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, which help trigger the Southwest monsoon between June and October, delivering over 70% of annual rainfall.[129] The Himalayas block frigid katabatic winds from Central Asia, maintaining warmer winters across the subcontinent.[130] India features four major climate zones: Tropical wet, Tropical dry, Subtropical humid, and Montane. Since 1901, the average temperature has risen by 0.7 °C, with heatwaves becoming longer and more intense. In May 2025, India recorded widespread pre-monsoon heat with temperatures crossing 44°C in central and northern regions, while states like Kerala and Arunachal Pradesh faced unexpected heat surges.[131] Climate change in India has accelerated the retreat of Himalayan glaciers such as the Gangotri Glacier and Drang-Drung Glacier, impacting river flows, agriculture, and downstream hydroelectric systems.[132] The melting threatens seasonal water availability for millions in the Indo-Gangetic basin.

Moreover, India is facing increased droughts, floods, cyclones, and vector-borne diseases due to climate variability. Cities like Chennai are projected to see a twofold increase in annual heatwave days by 2030.[133] Rising sea levels threaten low-lying regions such as the Sundarbans, Ghoramara Island, and coastal megacities, with over 35% of the population residing within 100 km of the coast.[134] In response, India has expanded its National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and launched the Bharat Forecasting System in 2025 to improve extreme weather prediction, while also undertaking new adaptation initiatives like the MISHTI mangrove restoration project.[135]

Government and Politics

India is a federal parliamentary republic, governed by the Constitution of India. The President is the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister leads the government. The Parliament consists of the Lok Sabha (House of the People) and Rajya Sabha (Council of States).


Economy

India’s economy ranks among the top 5 globally by nominal GDP. It is diverse, with major contributions from:

  • Information Technology (IT)
  • Agriculture
  • Manufacturing
  • Pharmaceuticals
  • Space and Atomic research

Culture

India’s cultural legacy is seen in its food, festivals, languages, music, clothing, and cinema. It is home to Bollywood, one of the world’s largest film industries. Every region has its own folk traditions, crafts, and customs.

Religion and Society

India is a secular nation with a pluralistic society. Major religions include Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The Indian Constitution guarantees freedom of religion and cultural expression.

See Also

External Links

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  3. ↑ Reich, David. Who We Are and How We Got Here. Oxford University Press, 2018.
  4. ↑ Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Penguin Books, 2003.
  5. ↑ Witzel, Michael. "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools." Harvard University, 1997.
  6. ↑ Encyclopaedia Britannica entries on Buddhism and Jainism
  7. ↑ The Hindu, "How religions came to India", 2020.
  8. ↑ Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press, 1993.
  9. ↑ Kulke, Hermann and Rothermund, Dietmar. A History of India. Routledge, 2016.
  10. ↑ https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/top-famous-freedom-fighters-of-india-1737527201-1
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  12. ↑ Khan, Yasmin. The Great Partition. Yale University Press, 2007.
  13. ↑ International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook 2024
  14. ↑ ISRO Annual Report 2023–24
  15. ↑ United Nations Population Division, 2022
  16. ↑ The Lancet, "India’s Double Burden: Malnutrition and Obesity", 2022.
  17. ↑ Al Jazeera, "India-China Border Disputes", 2023
  18. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary (2009). "India". Oxford University Press.
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  133. ↑ The Hindu, "Heatwave Trends in Indian Cities", June 2025.
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  135. ↑ Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), "India's Climate Adaptation Strategy 2025", June 2025.
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