India

India

India officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country in the world by land area and, since 2023, the most populous country, with over 1.4 billion people. Since its independence in 1947, India has been known as the world's largest democracy.

India is surrounded by the Indian Ocean in the south, the Arabian Sea to the west, and the Bay of Bengal to the east. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. The island nations of Sri Lanka and Maldives lie nearby in the Indian Ocean, and India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands are situated close to Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia.

Modern humans reached the Indian subcontinent from Africa at least 55,000 years ago. This long history gave rise to deep social and cultural diversity. Farming communities began around the Indus Valley more than 9,000 years ago, eventually forming the Indus Valley Civilisation—one of the world’s oldest urban cultures.

Around 1200 BCE, an early form of Sanskrit entered the subcontinent through the northwest and merged with local traditions. This marked the beginning of Hinduism. India also saw the birth of Buddhism and Jainism in the 6th century BCE, which rejected caste and stressed nonviolence and spiritual liberation.

Between the 7th and 15th centuries, religions such as Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism became established along India’s western and southern coasts. In the north, successive Delhi Sultanates and later the Mughal Empire brought major political changes and Islamic influence in culture, art, and architecture.

In the south, the Vijayanagara Empire promoted a vibrant Hindu cultural revival and maritime trade with Southeast Asia. Meanwhile, Sikhism emerged in the 15th century in the Punjab region, promoting equality and community service.

In the 17th century, the British East India Company gradually expanded its control over Indian territories. After the Revolt of 1857, British Crown rule was formally established in 1858. Although India experienced some modern reforms, it remained a colony until 1947.

The Indian freedom movement, led by leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Bhagat singh, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, used nonviolent resistance to demand self-rule. India became independent in 1947, but the country was partitioned into two nations—India and Pakistan—which led to mass migrations and violence.

India became a sovereign democratic republic in 1950 with a parliamentary system and a federal structure. It has emerged as one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies. Key industries include information technology, space research, agriculture, and manufacturing. India is also a major nuclear power and a space-faring nation through ISRO.

India is a pluralistic, multi-ethnic, and multilingual society, with 22 official languages and hundreds of regional languages. Its population has grown from 361 million in 1951 to over 1.4 billion in 2023.

Poverty has significantly declined, but economic inequality remains a major challenge. India also continues to face air pollution, gender inequality, and child malnutrition. India ranks high in military expenditure and maintains complex relations with China and Pakistan, particularly over Kashmir.

Despite challenges, India’s culture, including Bollywood, classical music, yoga, and spiritual traditions, has found influence across the globe.

Etymology

The name India comes from the Latin word India, which itself came from the Greek Indía (Ἰνδία), referring to the land beyond the Indus River. The Ancient Greeks used the word Indos (Ἰνδός) for the Indus River, and called its people Indoi—"people of the Indus". This name passed into Old Persian as Hindush, which was the name of a province in the Achaemenid Empire. The word comes from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, meaning 'river', especially referring to the Indus.

Bharat (or Bhārat) is another official name for India, mentioned in ancient Indian epics like the Mahabharata and also in the Constitution of India. The name is a modern version of Bharatavarsha, which originally meant the northern region of the Indian subcontinent. From the 19th century, Bharat became widely used by Indians as a national name.

Hindustan is another historical name, first used in Middle Persian to refer to the land of the Indus. It became common during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, referring mainly to North India, but was also used for the whole subcontinent at times.

Ancient India

By about 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans (Homo sapiens) arrived in the Indian subcontinent from Africa. The oldest modern human fossils in South Asia date to around 30,000 years ago.

By 6500 BCE, agricultural communities appeared at Mehrgarh (now in Pakistan), showing early domestication of crops and animals, permanent houses, and grain storage. Between 2500–1900 BCE, these societies evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, one of the world’s earliest urban cultures, with major cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, and Kalibangan. This civilisation excelled in agriculture, crafts (such as bead making and bronze tools), standardised weights, urban drainage, and extensive trade—including with Mesopotamia via seals and beads.

From 2000–500 BCE, much of the subcontinent transitioned to the Iron Age. The Vedas, ancient hymns linked to early Hinduism, were composed in this era. Historians also identify several waves of Indo‑Aryan migration into the northwest. It was during this time that an early caste system, categorising society into hierarchical groups, took shape.

On the Deccan Plateau, small kingdoms or chiefdoms emerged, while in South India, the appearance of megalithic monuments alongside evidence of farming and craft production indicates settled societies around 1000 BCE.

By the 6th century BCE, larger political entities known as mahajanapadas formed in the Ganges and northwest regions. Simultaneously, the non-Vedic religions Jainism and Buddhism emerged, emphasising spiritual equality, renunciation, and monastic living.

In the early 3rd century BCE, the Maurya Empire—originating from Magadha—unified much of northern and central India under rulers like Ashoka, who promoted Buddhist dhamma and public administration.

Between 200 BCE–200 CE, the Sangam literature describes South Indian kingdoms—the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas—which traded widely with the Roman Empire and Southeast Asia. In the north, patriarchal norms strengthened, reducing the social standing of women.

By the 4th–5th centuries CE, the Gupta Empire dominated the Ganges region, establishing systems of governance and taxation that influenced future states. The period is noted for the flourishing of classical Sanskrit literature, science, mathematics, medicine, art, and architecture.

Medieval India

The early medieval period of India, from 600 to 1200 CE, was marked by the rise of regional kingdoms and significant cultural diversity.

King Harsha of Kannauj ruled much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, but failed to expand his empire beyond north India. His southern campaign was stopped by the Chalukya dynasty of the Deccan, while his eastern ambitions were blocked by the Pala dynasty of Bengal. Likewise, when the Chalukyas tried to move further south, they were resisted by the Pallavas, who themselves faced opposition from the Pandyas and the emerging Chola dynasty.

No single kingdom during this period could maintain control over lands outside their core territories. Pastoral communities, displaced by expanding agriculture, were absorbed into the growing caste system. New rulers, often from non-traditional backgrounds, were integrated as new castes, leading to regional variations in caste practices.

In the 6th and 7th centuries, devotional poetry known as the bhakti movement began in Tamil. These hymns, composed by saints like the Alvars and Nayanars, became popular across India, sparking a revival in Hinduism and shaping the modern Indian languages.

During this period, temples became not only religious centres but also economic and social hubs. Royal patronage led to the growth of temple towns across the subcontinent, contributing to a new wave of urbanisation.

South Indian influence also spread outside India during the 8th and 9th centuries. Indian culture, religion, and political ideas were transmitted to Southeast Asia, influencing areas in today's Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Malaysia. This was achieved through merchants, scholars, and sometimes armies, while local Southeast Asian rulers also came to India to learn and translate religious texts.

In the late 10th century, Central Asian Muslim clans, united by ethnicity and religion, invaded northwest India with swift horse-based armies, leading to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE. Though initially disruptive, the sultans allowed non-Muslim subjects to follow their own laws and customs.

By resisting Mongol invasions in the 13th century, the Delhi Sultanate saved India from destruction experienced in West and Central Asia, encouraging the migration of scholars, soldiers, artists, and mystics to India, which contributed to a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture.

The sultanate's weakening of South Indian kingdoms made way for the Vijayanagara Empire, which embraced Shaivism and adapted military technology from the Delhi rulers. The empire controlled most of peninsular India, leaving a lasting influence on South Indian culture, religion, and architecture.

16th Century

In the early 16th century, northern India, which had been ruled by a series of Delhi Sultanate dynasties, fell to a new group of Central Asian conquerors. These warriors, led by Babur, a descendant of both Timur and Genghis Khan, invaded India using gunpowder-based artillery and highly mobile cavalry.

Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, marking the beginning of the Mughal Empire. Although Babur's rule was short, his successors — most notably Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan — consolidated and expanded the empire during the 16th century.

The Mughal state was one of the most centralised and efficient administrations of its time. Under Akbar, who ruled from 1556 to 1605, the empire expanded across most of North and Central India. He introduced revenue reforms (such as the Zabt system), supported religious tolerance, and promoted a Persianised court culture that embraced Hindus, Muslims, and other communities.

The Mughal court became a major patron of arts, architecture, and literature, commissioning monuments such as Humayun's Tomb and Fatehpur Sikri during the second half of the 16th century. The empire’s use of a silver-based currency and regulated markets helped stimulate trade and agriculture.

During this century, new social and political groups like the Rajputs were incorporated into the Mughal nobility, while others such as the Marathas and Sikhs began to emerge as independent forces.

While the Mughals controlled much of the subcontinent, regional kingdoms such as the Ahom kingdom in the northeast, the Vijayanagara Empire in the south, and various Deccan Sultanates remained powerful players.

By the end of the 16th century, India had become one of the most prosperous and populous regions of the world, with flourishing trade networks linking it to West Asia, Europe, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.

17th Century

During the 17th century, the Mughal Empire reached the height of its territorial and economic power. Under Emperor Jahangir (r. 1605–1627) and Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658), the Mughal court became synonymous with opulence, architectural grandeur, and administrative sophistication. The construction of the Taj Mahal, one of the most iconic monuments of India, was completed in 1648 under Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

The empire’s economy, based on agriculture and trade, remained strong. A highly standardised system of taxation and land revenue, known as Zabt, continued to function, and large surpluses allowed the state to support vast armies and elaborate building projects. Indian textiles, particularly cotton and silk, were in high demand across Europe and Southeast Asia, making India a central part of the Indian Ocean trade network.

European trading companies like the British East India Company, Dutch East India Company (VOC), French East India Company, and Portuguese Estado da Índia began to establish their presence on the Indian coasts during this period. They set up factories (trading posts) in key locations such as Surat, Madras (Chennai), Bombay (Mumbai), and Calcutta (Kolkata).

During the reign of Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), the empire expanded to its greatest territorial extent, stretching from the Hindu Kush to the Cauvery River in the south. However, Aurangzeb’s long campaigns in the Deccan, especially against the Maratha Empire, drained the empire’s resources and led to administrative fatigue. His reimposition of Islamic laws such as the Jizya tax and destruction of some Hindu temples alienated sections of the Hindu population, creating unrest in several regions.

At the same time, regional powers like the Sikhs in Punjab, the Jats in the north, and the Marathas in the Deccan began asserting their autonomy, laying the foundation for the fragmentation of Mughal authority in the 18th century.

Despite these political strains, the 17th century is often considered the golden age of Mughal art, architecture, and commerce, characterised by architectural marvels, court paintings, and literary developments in Persian, Urdu, and Hindavi languages.

18th Century

The 18th century marked the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of regional powers across the Indian subcontinent. After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the empire rapidly weakened due to administrative overreach, prolonged military campaigns, and increasing challenges from both internal rebellions and external forces. The central authority of the emperor diminished as provincial governors (nawabs and subahdars) and military elites declared independence or ruled autonomously while still acknowledging the nominal supremacy of the Mughal court in Delhi.

During this time, the Maratha Confederacy emerged as the most formidable Indian power. Under leaders like Baji Rao I and later Mahadji Shinde, the Marathas extended their influence across large parts of central, western, and northern India. Their guerrilla warfare techniques, decentralised leadership, and strong cavalry enabled them to challenge Mughal dominance and rival emerging foreign powers.

Meanwhile, other regional powers such as the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Kingdom of Mysore, and the Sikh Confederacy in Punjab also asserted autonomy and engaged in state-building activities.

The political instability of this era coincided with the increasing involvement of European trading companies in Indian politics. The British East India Company, having gained a strong foothold in Bengal after the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and later the Battle of Buxar in 1764, emerged as the most powerful foreign player. These victories enabled the British to establish diwani rights (revenue collection) in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, initiating direct colonial economic control.

While the French East India Company posed a temporary challenge through the military leadership of Joseph François Dupleix and General Lally, their defeat in the Carnatic Wars led to a decisive British supremacy among European powers in India.

This period also saw the rise of Indian thinkers and reformers influenced by both traditional learning and the early engagement with European ideas. The weakening of centralised control and shifting political power laid the groundwork for cultural exchange, social reforms, and the beginning of the modern colonial state that would emerge more clearly in the 19th century.

19th Century

During the 19th century, India witnessed the transformation from commercial colonisation under the British East India Company to direct British Crown rule, and the beginning of modern Indian nationalism. After the Anglo-Mysore Wars and Anglo-Maratha Wars, the British had effectively subdued most Indian princely states by the early 1800s.

The turning point came in 1857, with the outbreak of the Revolt of 1857, also referred to as the First War of Independence by Indian nationalists. Triggered by discontent among Indian soldiers (sepoys) over cultural insensitivity and growing resentment against British policies, the rebellion spread across northern and central India, involving both Hindu and Muslim leaders, as well as civilians. Although the revolt was eventually suppressed, it had far-reaching consequences. In 1858, the British Crown assumed direct control over India, formally ending Company rule and inaugurating the period of the British Raj.

Under the British Raj, India was reorganised into provinces administered by British officials and princely states ruled by Indian kings under British suzerainty. The British introduced railways, telegraphs, modern education, and Western legal systems, which were intended to integrate India into the global capitalist economy while also extending colonial control. Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras emerged as major urban centres. English education fostered a new class of Indian intellectuals, including Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and later Swami Vivekananda, who advocated for social reform, women’s rights, and religious revivalism.

Socially, this era was marked by reform movements such as the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, and efforts to abolish practices like sati, child marriage, and promote widow remarriage. Legislation like the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 and Age of Consent Act of 1891 reflected British involvement in Indian social practices, sometimes welcomed by reformers but also leading to nationalist resistance.

Economically, India was turned into a supplier of raw materials and a consumer of British manufactured goods, which caused deindustrialisation of native textile industries, heavy land taxation, and increased rural poverty. Famines, such as the Great Famine of 1876–1878, were exacerbated by British policy prioritising exports over local needs.

By the late 19th century, Indian political consciousness was rising. The founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885 provided a national platform for expressing grievances against British rule. Early leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Surendranath Banerjee focused on petitions, legislative reforms, and increased Indian representation in administration.

20th Century India

The 20th century was a turning point in Indian history, as the freedom movement transformed from moderate constitutional demands to a mass-based struggle for independence. The early phase of the century was dominated by the moderate nationalists, who sought reforms and Indian representation in governance. However, after the Partition of Bengal (1905) by the British, a wave of Swadeshi and boycott protests emerged, promoting Indian-made goods and rejecting British products.

During World War I, over a million Indian soldiers served overseas under the British Army, hoping for political concessions in return. But the Rowlatt Act (1919), which allowed detention without trial, and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre shocked the nation, turning public opinion sharply against British rule. It was during this time that Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a mass leader, advocating Satyagraha (non-violent resistance) and leading nationwide movements like the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920), Salt March (1930), and Quit India Movement (1942).

Political parties like the Indian National Congress and All India Muslim League became more prominent. While Congress pushed for a united India, the Muslim League under Muhammad Ali Jinnah began advocating for a separate Muslim state, which eventually led to the demand for Pakistan.

Britain’s exhaustion after World War II, growing international pressure, and mass civil disobedience led to the eventual withdrawal of the British. On 15 August 1947, India gained independence, but it came with the Partition of India, resulting in the creation of the separate nation of Pakistan. The partition caused widespread violence, the largest mass migration in history, and communal riots between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs, leading to the deaths of hundreds of thousands.

The independence era also marked the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi in 1948, by a Hindu extremist, an event that deeply shook the nation.

Post-Independence India (1947–present)

India became an independent nation on 15 August 1947. The first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, took leadership with a vision of a secular, democratic, and socialist country. On 26 January 1950, India adopted its Constitution of India and officially became a Republic of India, with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar as the principal architect of the Constitution.

The early years focused on nation-building, with large investments in infrastructure, education, and public sector enterprises. The government promoted a mixed economy model, combining private enterprise with government control over key industries. Nehru also started the Non-Aligned Movement, keeping India independent of Cold War alliances.

India faced major challenges after independence:

The Partition of India led to communal violence and the displacement of over 14 million people.

India integrated over 500 princely states, including controversial cases like Hyderabad State and Jammu and Kashmir, the latter of which became a long-standing issue between India and Pakistan.

India fought several wars:

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 over Kashmir

Sino-Indian War of 1962 with China

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, where India helped in the creation of Bangladesh

In 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test in Pokhran, Rajasthan, making it a nuclear power.

In the 1970s and 1980s, India went through political instability. The Emergency of 1975–77, declared by then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, suspended civil liberties and censored the press. The 1984 assassination of Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards led to anti-Sikh riots and a major communal crisis.

The 1991 economic crisis forced India to adopt liberalisation, ending the Licence Raj and opening up to global markets under Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Manmohan Singh.

21st Century India

India entered the 21st century as a rapidly growing emerging economy, marked by progress in information technology, space exploration, and renewable energy. It became one of the world’s fastest-growing economies. India also launched missions like Chandrayaan and Mangalyaan to explore the Moon and Mars.

India continues to face internal challenges such as poverty, corruption, pollution, and religious tensions, but it has also seen major reforms in digital governance, infrastructure, and social welfare schemes.

India is now the world's most populous country (as of 2023), a nuclear power, a key player in global diplomacy, and an important member of groups like G20, BRICS, and Quad.

Geography

India accounts for the bulk of the Indian subcontinent, lying atop the Indian Plate, a part of the Indo-Australian Plate. India's defining geological processes began approximately 75 million years ago when the Indian Plate, originally part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastward drift due to seafloor spreading in the south-west, and later, the south and southeast. Concurrently, the vast Tethyan oceanic crust to its northeast started subducting under the Eurasian Plate. These tectonic forces, driven by convection currents in the Earth's mantle, eventually created the Indian Ocean, thrust the Indian landmass under Eurasia, and gave rise to the Himalayas. South of the Himalayas, tectonic movement led to the formation of the crescent-shaped Indo-Gangetic Plain, formed by sedimentation from Himalayan rivers. The Indian Plate emerges visibly in the ancient Aravalli Range, extending southwest from the Delhi Ridge. To the west of the Aravallis lies the Thar Desert, whose eastern expansion is checked by these hills.

The stable and oldest part of the Indian Plate remains as Peninsular India, which includes the Deccan Plateau. This region extends northwards to the Satpura Range and the Vindhya Range, which run roughly east–west from the Arabian Sea in Gujarat to the Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand. The plateau, bordered by the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats, contains some of the country's oldest rock formations, dating back more than one billion years. India lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere, between 6°44′ and 35°30′ N latitude and 68°7′ and 97°25′ E longitude.

India's total coastline measures approximately 7,516 km, although a 2024 survey using high-resolution satellite imagery by the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) recalculated the dynamic mainland and island perimeter to be over 11,000 km, factoring in tidal variations and sandbar shifts. This includes 5,423 km along Peninsular India and 2,094 km surrounding the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep. According to hydrographic charts, the mainland coast comprises 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky shores, and 46% mudflats or marshes. Prominent rivers with Himalayan origins include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both draining into the Bay of Bengal. Tributaries like the Yamuna and Kosi—the latter prone to flooding due to its low gradient—support dense agriculture. Peninsular rivers like the Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, and Kaveri also flow into the Bay of Bengal, while the Narmada and Tapti drain into the Arabian Sea. The coastline features the Rann of Kutch in the west and the Sundarbans delta in the east, the latter shared with Bangladesh.

India's climate is profoundly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, which help trigger the Southwest monsoon between June and October, delivering over 70% of annual rainfall. The Himalayas block frigid katabatic winds from Central Asia, maintaining warmer winters across the subcontinent. India features four major climate zones: Tropical wet, Tropical dry, Subtropical humid, and Montane. Since 1901, the average temperature has risen by 0.7 °C, with heatwaves becoming longer and more intense. In May 2025, India recorded widespread pre-monsoon heat with temperatures crossing 44°C in central and northern regions, while states like Kerala and Arunachal Pradesh faced unexpected heat surges. Climate change in India has accelerated the retreat of Himalayan glaciers such as the Gangotri Glacier and Drang-Drung Glacier, impacting river flows, agriculture, and downstream hydroelectric systems. The melting threatens seasonal water availability for millions in the Indo-Gangetic basin.

Moreover, India is facing increased droughts, floods, cyclones, and vector-borne diseases due to climate variability. Cities like Chennai are projected to see a twofold increase in annual heatwave days by 2030. Rising sea levels threaten low-lying regions such as the Sundarbans, Ghoramara Island, and coastal megacities, with over 35% of the population residing within 100 km of the coast. In response, India has expanded its National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and launched the Bharat Forecasting System in 2025 to improve extreme weather prediction, while also undertaking new adaptation initiatives like the MISHTI mangrove restoration project.

Biodiversity

India is a megadiverse country, one among 17 nations worldwide with exceptional biological diversity and significant numbers of endemic species. It is home to 8.6% of global mammals, 13.7% of birds, 7.9% of reptiles, 6% of amphibians, 12.2% of fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plants. Nearly one-third of India’s plant species are endemic.

India contains four of the world's 34 biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats, Indo–Burma, Himalaya, and parts of the Sundaland biome (in Andaman and Nicobar Islands).

The country’s densest forests—such as the tropical moist forests of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and Northeast India—cover approximately 3% of its land area. Moderately dense forests (40–70% canopy cover), which include temperate coniferous forests in the Himalayas, moist deciduous sal forests of eastern India, and dry deciduous teak forests of central and southern India, cover about 9.4% of the land area. There are also two natural thorn forest zones: one in the Deccan Plateau east of the Western Ghats, and another in the irrigated regions of the western Indo–Gangetic Plain.

Notable native trees include Azadirachta indica (neem), widely used in traditional medicine, and Ficus religiosa (peepul), revered in culture and religion since ancient times, even appearing on seals from Mohenjo-daro and linked to stories of the Buddha's enlightenment.

Several Indian species are remnants of Gondwanan lineages, while others arrived after India’s collision with Eurasia. This geological mixing resulted in low mammal endemism (12.6%) but high levels among reptiles (45.8%) and amphibians (55.8%). Endemic species include the vulnerable hooded leaf monkey and the threatened Beddome's toad, both found in the Western Ghats.

India hosts 172 IUCN‑designated threatened animal species (~2.9% of global threatened fauna). These include the Bengal tiger and Ganges river dolphin (endangered), and critically endangered species such as the gharial, great Indian bustard, and white‑rumped vulture, which has suffered due to diclofenac poisoning in cattle carcasses. Historical habitats like Punjab's thorn forests and grasslands, once home to blackbuck and Asiatic cheetah, have been largely converted to agriculture; blackbuck are now endangered, and cheetah is extinct in India.

To preserve wildlife, India has significantly strengthened its conservation framework. National parks and protected areas—first established in 1935—expanded dramatically, especially after the 1972 Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger, complemented by the 1980 Forest Conservation Act. Presently, India manages 500+ wildlife sanctuaries, 18 biosphere reserves (four in the World Network), and 89 Ramsar wetlands.

India’s biodiversity—rich yet threatened—is now being supported by renewed efforts in protected area management, community-based conservation, and species recovery programs aimed at balancing ecological integrity with sustainable development.

Politics and government

India is a federal parliamentary republic, where power is shared between the Union government in New Delhi and state governments across 28 states and 8 union territories. The President of India serves as the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises executive authority. The Parliament of India is bicameral, comprising the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People), with representatives elected every five years.

State governments have their own legislative assemblies and, in some states, legislative councils. Chief Ministers—elected by the legislative assemblies—serve as the heads of state governments under the symbolic authority of Governors appointed by the President.

India follows a multiparty democratic system. The dominant national parties include the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the [[Indian National Congress (INC)], along with regional parties such as the Trinamool Congress, Aam Aadmi Party, and Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK).

The judiciary is independent, with the Supreme Court of India at its apex, followed by High Courts at the state level and subordinate courts below. The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review and serves as the final authority on constitutional matters.

India’s constitution guarantees a range of rights, including fundamental rights (e.g., equality, freedom of speech, and religion) and Directive Principles of State Policy, which serve as guidelines for governance. It also provides reservation quotas for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes in education and government jobs to ensure social equity.

Elections at the Union and State levels are overseen by the Election Commission of India, an autonomous body established to ensure free and fair elections using Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter-Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPAT).

India’s political landscape includes diverse institutions and mechanisms for accountability, such as the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG), the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC), and the Right to Information Act (RTI), enacted in 2005 to promote transparency.

At the international level, India's foreign policy is shaped by its non-aligned history, strategic partnerships, and growing role in global forums such as BRICS, G20, QUAD, and the United Nations.

Government

India operates as a sovereign socialist secular democratic republic governed by a parliamentary system as outlined in the Constitution of India, which came into effect on 26 January 1950. The President of India is the formal head of the state and serves primarily ceremonial duties, while real executive power lies with the Prime Minister, who is the head of government and leads the Union Council of Ministers.

The Indian government is divided into three main branches: the Executive, the Legislature, and the Judiciary.

The Executive consists of the President, Vice President, Prime Minister, and the Council of Ministers. The Prime Minister of India is appointed by the President and is generally the leader of the majority party or coalition in the Lok Sabha. The Council of Ministers aids and advises the President in the exercise of their functions.

The Legislature, known as the Parliament of India, is bicameral and consists of two houses: the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The Lok Sabha is directly elected by the citizens through general elections held every five years, while the Rajya Sabha members are elected by state legislative assemblies or nominated by the President.

The Judiciary is independent and is headed by the Supreme Court of India, followed by High Courts in each state and lower courts at district and subordinate levels. The judiciary is entrusted with upholding the Constitution, interpreting laws, and delivering justice. The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review and is the guardian of fundamental rights.

India's federal structure divides powers between the Union and the States, detailed in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution under the Union List, State List, and Concurrent List. Each state has its own government with a Governor as the ceremonial head and a Chief Minister as the real executive authority.

India ensures democratic participation through institutions like the Election Commission of India, which conducts free and fair elections at both national and state levels. Laws are enforced by civil services and police under the oversight of various ministries and departments, while the legislative oversight is exercised through parliamentary debates, questions, and committees.

The government also provides reservation policies for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes in education and employment, and has schemes to address poverty, health, education, and social welfare through ministries like the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment and the Ministry of Rural Development.

Administrative divisions

India is a federal union comprising 28 states and 8 union territories. Each state and union territory has its own administrative structure, with division of power between the Union government and the respective state or territory governments as defined in the Constitution of India.

Each state has its own Legislative Assembly and an elected Chief Minister who heads the executive branch, while the Governor acts as the ceremonial head, appointed by the President of India. Some states also have a bicameral legislature with a Legislative Council as the upper house (e.g., Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Bihar, and Telangana).

The union territories are governed directly by the Central Government through an appointed Lieutenant Governor or Administrator. However, three union territories—Delhi, Puducherry, and Jammu and Kashmir—have been granted partial statehood, meaning they have elected legislative assemblies and enjoy a greater degree of self-governance.

For administrative purposes, states and union territories are further divided into districts (as of 2024, over 775 in total), which are governed by a District Collector or District Magistrate appointed from the Indian Administrative Service (IAS). Each district is subdivided into tehsils or talukas, and further into blocks, towns, and villages.

To promote decentralisation, India follows a three-tier system of local self-government:

• Gram Panchayats at the village level,

• Panchayat Samitis at the block level,

• Zila Parishads at the district level in rural areas, and

Municipal Corporations, Municipal Councils, and Nagar Panchayats in urban areas.

This administrative structure ensures governance and service delivery across a vast and diverse population. Article 1 of the Constitution describes India as a "Union of States", which signifies that the Indian federation is not the result of an agreement among states, and states do not have the right to secede.

Foreign, economic, and strategic relations

Since gaining independence in 1947, India has pursued a foreign policy rooted in principles of non-alignment and peaceful coexistence. Under Jawaharlal Nehru, India became a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), choosing not to formally align with either the United States or the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

In the 21st century, India's foreign relations have diversified significantly. It maintains strategic partnerships with major global powers such as the United States, Russia, the European Union, Japan, and increasingly with Australia. India is also an active participant in regional and multilateral platforms such as:

United Nations (UN),

World Trade Organization (WTO),

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC),

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO),

BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa), and

Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad), alongside the US, Japan, and Australia.

India's immediate neighbourhood policy—Neighbourhood First—prioritises strong diplomatic and economic ties with South Asian countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Maldives. However, its relationship with Pakistan has remained tense due to historical conflicts, especially over Kashmir. Bilateral ties with China have also been strained by border disputes, notably the 2020 Galwan Valley clash.

Economically, India has emerged as one of the world's fastest-growing major economies. It is a key player in global trade and investment. The government promotes initiatives like Make in India, Digital India, and Startup India to boost exports, attract foreign investment, and develop high-tech infrastructure.

India is also a major contributor to United Nations peacekeeping operations and actively promotes global development, South-South cooperation, and climate action. As part of the International Solar Alliance (ISA), co-founded with France, India is leading global efforts in renewable energy adoption.

Strategically, India maintains one of the largest military forces in the world. It is a nuclear weapons state and operates a tri-service command structure—Indian Army, Indian Navy, and Indian Air Force. India is also expanding its influence in the Indo-Pacific region through naval cooperation and maritime security dialogues.

India’s foreign policy today balances its historic values of peaceful diplomacy with its contemporary ambitions of becoming a regional and global power.